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women are also less likely than men to reach the highest -paying leadership and executive positions. In 2015, women held only 26 percent of pri- vate -sector executive positions, with women of color particularly unlikely to hold such positions. (For more information on the leadership gap, see AAUW's 2016 report Barriers and Bias: the Status of IVomen in Leadership.) Gender bias also factors into how our society values some jobs over others. A study of 50 years of U.S. workforce data concluded that when an influx of women enter a previously male -dominated profession, average wages for the occupation as a whole actually decrease (Levanon et al., 2009). And bias affects the choices women make in the first place. Gender norms and pressures influence women's decisions regarding education, occupation, time away from work, and family. These so-called explained factors show that our society has specific expectations and standards for women. So how do we know that discrimination and bias affect women's pay? Because discrimination cannot be directly detected in most records of income and employment, researchers look for the "unexplained" pay gap after statistically accounting for other factors. For instance, after accounting for college major, occupation, economic sector, hours worked, months unemployed since graduation, GPA, type of undergraduate institution, institution selectivity, age, geographical region, and marital status, AAUW found a remaining 7 percent difference between the earnings of male and female college gradu- ates one year after graduation. That gap jumped to 12 percent 10 years after college graduation (AAUW, 2012; AALTW Educational Foundation, 2007). Other researchers have reached similar conclusions about gender discrimi- nation and the pay gap. For instance, a study of medical researchers found an unexplained gap of 6 percent between comparable men and women in the field, and a recent study of the American workforce as a whole found an unexplained gap of 8 percent Qagsi et al., 2012; Blau & Kahn, 2016). These estimates of the unexplained pay gap are often treated as estimates of the effect of discrimination on women's earnings. These numbers may be smaller than the overall pay gap, but all calculations of the gap represent substantial inequalities, real individual struggles, and smaller paychecks for women and their families. 20 people with disabilities, the gender pay gap is substantial: Median pay for women with disabilities is 69 percent that of men with disabilities. (These data include all workers regardless of full-time or year-round status.) Sexual orientation and gender identity According to the Williams Institute, closing the gender pay gap would significantly mitigate the poverty rates of both same-sex and opposite -sex couples. Using 2012 ACS results, an institute study found that eliminating the gender pay gap would lower poverty rates for couples that include at least one woman (Williams Institute, 2015). The Williams Institute also conducted a meta-analysis of studies of the incomes of lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals, finding that gay and bisexual men are paid 10-32 percent less than similarly qualified heterosexual men. The same study found that lesbi- ans may be paid more than heterosexual women but still are paid less than heterosexual or gay men (Williams Institute, 2007). When we analyze the gender pay gap, it's also important to include people who do not identify with the gender they were assigned at birth. The Wil- liams Institute estimates that 1.4 million adults in the United States identify as transgender (2016). Transgender people frequently experience harass- ment and discrimination in the workplace because of their gender identity (Grant et al., 2011). Preliminary evidence from the National Transgender Discrimination Survey also suggests that people who transition from male to female gender expres- sion experience a drop in pay after the transition, while those who transition from female to male gender expression see no difference in pay or even a small increase (Grant et al., 2011). The experiences of transgender people offer a powerful tool for understanding gender stereotypes and bias and how these factors play a role in the gender pay gap. 13